17. Since the time of Plato it has been customary to regard as material everything that manifests itself through action. By this definition the electric, magnetic and gravitational fields are forms of matter, whose characteristic feature is that they are non-substantial matter. One way or another they are connected with substance, but in themselves they are not substantial. We do not know the nature of these fields, and therefore we judge them phenomenologically, by their characteristic properties. However, it turns out that the phenomenological definition of fields is rather conditional. We speak, for example, of the electric field, when suddenly it becomes clear that every change of the electric field gives rise to a magnetic field, and the other way round, and this means that the electric and magnetic fields have a single nature, being in essence a manifestation of its different aspects.
The photon is also a non-substantial materiality – it is a domain of matter of non-substantial nature, provisionally h-matter. But its uniqueness lies in the fact that, first, h-matter is in principle not connected with any substance, and second, its nature is such that it manifests itself through a triunity of properties – electric, magnetic and gravitational. In this triunity the photon is the absolute corpuscle of the material world. One can destroy an atom, a proton, a neutron, an electron and so on, but by no means of the material world is it possible to destroy a photon – the absolute object of the material world. Every photon has an equal amount of h-matter, but its density differs, and hence the energy of photons differs as well.
The photon has a remarkable property – constant motion with the absolute speed in vacuum. It needs no energy for this; it moves, as it were, by inertia, so that one can say that in vacuum the photon “rests” with the absolute speed. Every part of the photon moves in a straight line with the absolute speed, and therefore inside the photon there is no relative motion, for otherwise it would turn out that a speed of motion greater than the absolute one exists. Since there is no relative motion inside the photon, nothing threatens its integrity, and therefore there is no need for any forces preserving it. In this state, i.e. in the state of absolute internal rest, the photon is a closed electric field which possibly has a complex structure, for example the structure of a single wave oriented in space in a definite way.
But the motion of the photon in vacuum with the absolute speed does not mean that the photon cannot in principle move with a speed lower than the absolute one. Since the motion of the photon with the absolute speed is its state of inertia, determined by the medium of vacuum, this state can be changed only by changing the conditions of the medium.
Indeed, when a photon passes through optically denser media, the speed of the photon becomes lower than the absolute one v<c, but at the same time its extent in space λ also decreases, and decreases so that the energy of the photon remains unchanged, in agreement with equation (25). The energy of the photon remains unchanged, but its qualitative composition changes: the decrease of the energy associated with the motion of the photon is made up by a corresponding amount of magnetic field energy. When the photon returns to the medium of vacuum, this magnetic field collapses, and the energy stored in it passes into the energy of motion of the photon, so that the speed of the photon again becomes absolute.
The appearance of the magnetic field is caused by the changes of the electric field that take place when the photon enters a medium optically denser than vacuum. Those parts of the photon that are already in the denser medium will move with some speed v, while the others continue to move with the absolute speed. In the electric field of the photon a wave of longitudinal deformation arises, whose front moves with the speed c (the photon is compressed with the speed c), reaching the end of the photon in the time T.
The energy of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the gradient of the deformation: the higher the gradient – the greater the density of h-matter, the optically denser the medium – the greater the share of magnetic energy in the total energy of the photon. The absolute motion of the photon is indestructible, therefore, when the wave of longitudinal deformation reaches the end of the photon, it is most likely reflected, and a standing wave forms in the electric field of the photon, the frequency of whose pulsations η is some function f(v/c), for example:
The photon is also a non-substantial materiality – it is a domain of matter of non-substantial nature, provisionally h-matter. But its uniqueness lies in the fact that, first, h-matter is in principle not connected with any substance, and second, its nature is such that it manifests itself through a triunity of properties – electric, magnetic and gravitational. In this triunity the photon is the absolute corpuscle of the material world. One can destroy an atom, a proton, a neutron, an electron and so on, but by no means of the material world is it possible to destroy a photon – the absolute object of the material world. Every photon has an equal amount of h-matter, but its density differs, and hence the energy of photons differs as well.
The photon has a remarkable property – constant motion with the absolute speed in vacuum. It needs no energy for this; it moves, as it were, by inertia, so that one can say that in vacuum the photon “rests” with the absolute speed. Every part of the photon moves in a straight line with the absolute speed, and therefore inside the photon there is no relative motion, for otherwise it would turn out that a speed of motion greater than the absolute one exists. Since there is no relative motion inside the photon, nothing threatens its integrity, and therefore there is no need for any forces preserving it. In this state, i.e. in the state of absolute internal rest, the photon is a closed electric field which possibly has a complex structure, for example the structure of a single wave oriented in space in a definite way.
But the motion of the photon in vacuum with the absolute speed does not mean that the photon cannot in principle move with a speed lower than the absolute one. Since the motion of the photon with the absolute speed is its state of inertia, determined by the medium of vacuum, this state can be changed only by changing the conditions of the medium.
Indeed, when a photon passes through optically denser media, the speed of the photon becomes lower than the absolute one v<c, but at the same time its extent in space λ also decreases, and decreases so that the energy of the photon remains unchanged, in agreement with equation (25). The energy of the photon remains unchanged, but its qualitative composition changes: the decrease of the energy associated with the motion of the photon is made up by a corresponding amount of magnetic field energy. When the photon returns to the medium of vacuum, this magnetic field collapses, and the energy stored in it passes into the energy of motion of the photon, so that the speed of the photon again becomes absolute.
The appearance of the magnetic field is caused by the changes of the electric field that take place when the photon enters a medium optically denser than vacuum. Those parts of the photon that are already in the denser medium will move with some speed v, while the others continue to move with the absolute speed. In the electric field of the photon a wave of longitudinal deformation arises, whose front moves with the speed c (the photon is compressed with the speed c), reaching the end of the photon in the time T.
The energy of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the gradient of the deformation: the higher the gradient – the greater the density of h-matter, the optically denser the medium – the greater the share of magnetic energy in the total energy of the photon. The absolute motion of the photon is indestructible, therefore, when the wave of longitudinal deformation reaches the end of the photon, it is most likely reflected, and a standing wave forms in the electric field of the photon, the frequency of whose pulsations η is some function f(v/c), for example:
Изображение
where n - the refractive index of the given medium.
When a photon collides with a stationary opaque surface, the photon, in the general case, is either reflected from that surface or absorbed by it.
The wave of longitudinal deformation of the electric field arising on collision with a stationary and optically opaque surface has the maximum gradient, but the magnitude of the gradient differs for different photons (owing to the different density of h-matter), while the coefficient of deformation is the same for all photons (owing to the single nature of h-matter). Therefore at the moment of the complete stopping of the photon, i.e. when all the energy of motion has passed into the energy of the magnetic field, each photon is compressed to limiting dimensions peculiar to it alone λfin, having a corresponding final density of matter ρfin. One may suppose that the photon is reflected because is less than the density of the substance of the reflecting wall ρ: it cannot move forward and cannot be compressed any further. Therefore, when the deformation wave reaches the end of the photon, no standing wave forms – the magnetic field collapses, and the energy stored in it passes into the energy of motion of the photon with the absolute speed.
18. The absorption of a photon by an atom is a complexly structured exchange interaction of the photon with the ponderomotive field of one of the quantum oscillators of the atom. When a photon of energy hv is absorbed, a quantum of the kinetic energy of the oscillator's electron, equal to the energy quantum of the photon, is materialised, with the formation of a quantum of the ponderomotive field – a graviton of mass 2mΨ.
I would note that it is not possible to examine the process of photon absorption at the level of the acting causes, because the nature of h-matter is unknown to us, and so is the nature of the ponderomotive field, and finding these natures lies beyond the scope of this work. Therefore we shall confine ourselves to the phenomenological definition formulated, taking into account the essential circumstance that it agrees well with such physical phenomena as the radioactive decay of substance, the mass defect, and the external and internal photoelectric effects.
In the context of this definition the process of absorption consists in the energy quantum of the photon hv and an equal quantum of the kinetic energy of the electron of the oscillator forming a graviton of mass 2mΨ. The energy equation of this process can be written in the form:
When a photon collides with a stationary opaque surface, the photon, in the general case, is either reflected from that surface or absorbed by it.
The wave of longitudinal deformation of the electric field arising on collision with a stationary and optically opaque surface has the maximum gradient, but the magnitude of the gradient differs for different photons (owing to the different density of h-matter), while the coefficient of deformation is the same for all photons (owing to the single nature of h-matter). Therefore at the moment of the complete stopping of the photon, i.e. when all the energy of motion has passed into the energy of the magnetic field, each photon is compressed to limiting dimensions peculiar to it alone λfin, having a corresponding final density of matter ρfin. One may suppose that the photon is reflected because is less than the density of the substance of the reflecting wall ρ: it cannot move forward and cannot be compressed any further. Therefore, when the deformation wave reaches the end of the photon, no standing wave forms – the magnetic field collapses, and the energy stored in it passes into the energy of motion of the photon with the absolute speed.
18. The absorption of a photon by an atom is a complexly structured exchange interaction of the photon with the ponderomotive field of one of the quantum oscillators of the atom. When a photon of energy hv is absorbed, a quantum of the kinetic energy of the oscillator's electron, equal to the energy quantum of the photon, is materialised, with the formation of a quantum of the ponderomotive field – a graviton of mass 2mΨ.
I would note that it is not possible to examine the process of photon absorption at the level of the acting causes, because the nature of h-matter is unknown to us, and so is the nature of the ponderomotive field, and finding these natures lies beyond the scope of this work. Therefore we shall confine ourselves to the phenomenological definition formulated, taking into account the essential circumstance that it agrees well with such physical phenomena as the radioactive decay of substance, the mass defect, and the external and internal photoelectric effects.
In the context of this definition the process of absorption consists in the energy quantum of the photon hv and an equal quantum of the kinetic energy of the electron of the oscillator forming a graviton of mass 2mΨ. The energy equation of this process can be written in the form:
Изображение
The photon is a corpuscle of non-substantial materiality, whose attributive property is motion. The kinetic energy of the oscillator's electron is not a materiality at all – it is a quantitative measure of its mechanical motion. So the uniqueness of the absorption process lies in the fact that, first, they are aggregated, and second, the aggregation forms a new object of the material world – a quantum of substantial materiality possessing the directly opposite attributive property – not motion but inertness, yet inertness that is not absolute but relative, the measure of which is mass. In the graviton the electric and magnetic aspects of h-matter are in a potential, i.e. unmanifested state, while the gravitational aspect is in a physically manifested state.
What we earlier called the ponderomotive field in the atom, and what was detected in the experiments of Franck – Hertz, is in reality a graviton field, which has a quantum structure and possesses quantum-mechanical properties of interaction with both particles and photons. Taking this circumstance into account, the total energy of the quantum oscillator can be written in a more definite form
What we earlier called the ponderomotive field in the atom, and what was detected in the experiments of Franck – Hertz, is in reality a graviton field, which has a quantum structure and possesses quantum-mechanical properties of interaction with both particles and photons. Taking this circumstance into account, the total energy of the quantum oscillator can be written in a more definite form
Изображение
where m0 is the total mass of all mΨ gravitons forming the given quantum oscillator.
It is quite obvious that when the quantum oscillator emits a photon of energy hv=4.86 eV , its total energy will become equal to
It is quite obvious that when the quantum oscillator emits a photon of energy hv=4.86 eV , its total energy will become equal to
Изображение
Since in an inelastic collision the internal energy of the atom is conserved, an inelastic collision can be represented as a combination of two processes: the emission of a photon hv=4.86 eV and the absorption of a quantum of kinetic energy 4.86 eV of the emission electron, carried out according to the rules of photon absorption
Изображение
Here I stress once more that this is a phenomenological treatment, in which only some aspects of the processes under consideration are disclosed.
From the analysis of equation (36´) it follows that the interactions of an inelastic collision are carried out by the atom proceeding from the law of conservation of energy, and the structure of its graviton field also remains unchanged, so that one can assert that the atom is a rigidly conservative system.
19. Thus, in all exchange interactions the atom proceeds from the condition of self-preservation, i.e. of preserving the minimum value of internal energy. But whereas in inelastic collisions with particles the quantum structure of the graviton field remains unchanged, when a photon is absorbed or emitted it changes: when a photon is absorbed a new graviton appears in the structure of the field, and when it is emitted one of the previously existing ones disappears. The self-preservation of the atom in these cases is achieved by a corresponding change of its heat capacity, so that the so-called discrete series of “allowed” values of the internal energy of the atom (from formula (23) for the hydrogen atom and analogous ones for other atoms) expresses, in essence, the structure of the graviton field that preserves the atom under various conditions of the external medium.
In this connection the physical meaning of the time derivative of the function of the quantum oscillator (15) also becomes clear – it is the energy quantum by which the kinetic energy of the quantum oscillator decreases on absorption and increases on emission, so that the derivative has the form:
From the analysis of equation (36´) it follows that the interactions of an inelastic collision are carried out by the atom proceeding from the law of conservation of energy, and the structure of its graviton field also remains unchanged, so that one can assert that the atom is a rigidly conservative system.
19. Thus, in all exchange interactions the atom proceeds from the condition of self-preservation, i.e. of preserving the minimum value of internal energy. But whereas in inelastic collisions with particles the quantum structure of the graviton field remains unchanged, when a photon is absorbed or emitted it changes: when a photon is absorbed a new graviton appears in the structure of the field, and when it is emitted one of the previously existing ones disappears. The self-preservation of the atom in these cases is achieved by a corresponding change of its heat capacity, so that the so-called discrete series of “allowed” values of the internal energy of the atom (from formula (23) for the hydrogen atom and analogous ones for other atoms) expresses, in essence, the structure of the graviton field that preserves the atom under various conditions of the external medium.
In this connection the physical meaning of the time derivative of the function of the quantum oscillator (15) also becomes clear – it is the energy quantum by which the kinetic energy of the quantum oscillator decreases on absorption and increases on emission, so that the derivative has the form:
Изображение
where Ψ - is the same quantum oscillator, but with a new value of the kinetic energy.
Substituting the value found for the derivative into equation (18) we obtain the stationary equation of the quantum anharmonic oscillator
Substituting the value found for the derivative into equation (18) we obtain the stationary equation of the quantum anharmonic oscillator
Изображение
which, however, is valid only for those quantum oscillators of the atom that, in the given state of thermal equilibrium of the atom, neither absorb nor emit quanta of thermal energy.
20. Equation (5), as can be seen, resembles the de Broglie formula
Изображение
in which λ, as is known, has the meaning of the length of the electron wave.
However, de Broglie's assumption that the electron, which is undoubtedly a particle, is also a wave – such an assumption grossly contradicts the unchangeable foundations of exact natural science, and is therefore erroneous. The de Broglie wave should be regarded as no more than a “working hypothesis” or a “hypothesis of plausible causes”. This is the name given to hypotheses put forward in conditions where there are not yet sufficient data for a full explanation of the whole set of phenomena of the field under study, and where one has to be content with an explanation that is knowingly incomplete. A “working hypothesis” does not claim to be an explanation or a reflection of reality. It is a more or less artificial assumption, always accepted only conditionally, whose fate is, sooner or later, to give way to an explanation that will be a true reflection of the objective regularity in all its fullness and complexity.
The electron is objectively a particle, and therefore cannot in principle be a wave. And nevertheless, as follows from the scientific literature, the validity of de Broglie's hypothesis has been proved in numerous experiments.
Leibniz already wittily ridiculed those who thought that before studying logic a person was unable to think. This, in his words, would mean belittling nature excessively and supposing that man is a two-legged creature whom Aristotle turned into a rational being. Hegel was no less right when he said that, in order to think correctly, it is not necessary to know logic, just as it is not necessary to know the physiology of digestion in order to learn to take food.
A person learns to think, first of all, under the influence of nature, of which he is a part and the “crown”. Unlike all other kinds of the animal world, man has no biologically distinct ecological niche: the means of sustaining the life of his organism are too weak and undeveloped for the direct extraction and consumption of the vital forces of the nature around him. What makes man viable is the capacity to know reality, i.e. the capacity to reflect correctly in thought the surrounding world and himself in this world. Not thinking in general, but correct thinking opens to man the possibility of constantly strengthening his natural means of sustaining life, supplementing them with the necessary instrumental means. If man did not reflect reality correctly in his thoughts, he simply could not exist. But in order to think correctly and obtain new knowledge by means of inferences, it is necessary to know how the process of thinking takes place, what its forms and laws are, and how to build cognition so as to explain correctly the reality around us. That is why Leibniz pointed out that thinking without a science of the essence of thinking and its laws would be “like counting on one's fingers”.
One need not know the laws of logic in order to think, but in order to think correctly one should bear in mind that observing the laws of logic in the process of obtaining inferential knowledge is a necessary condition for reaching the truth.
A hypothesis is one of the logical forms of thought that make it possible to obtain inferential knowledge, and therefore, with the aim of obtaining reliable knowledge, the science of logic establishes definite rules for testing it. The testing of a hypothesis consists in comparing the consequences obtained analytically from the study of its basic assumption with the data of observation and experiment. If the comparison shows that all the consequences derived theoretically by analysing the basic assumption exist in reality, i.e. agree with the data of observation and experiment and not one of them contradicts these data, then this will prove only that the hypothesis is probable. It may seem that if all the theoretically derived consequences of a hypothesis correspond to the observed facts of reality, then the hypothesis must thereby be considered proved as a reliable truth. However, this is not so. The point is that one and the same consequence may follow from different grounds. Therefore the agreement of the consequences derived from the basic assumption of a hypothesis with the facts of reality does not yet prove its reliability, since these facts may turn out to be due to another regularity which has remained unknown to the author of the hypothesis.
At the same time, weighty evidence in favour of a hypothesis is the discovery – by a special experiment – of a phenomenon which before the elaboration of the hypothesis had not been directly observed anywhere, was not known, and whose existence was first deduced theoretically – as a consequence of the given hypothesis. The probative force of a theoretical deduction increases still more if it contains numerical relations connecting essential aspects of the discovered phenomenon. One such case, for example, was one of the consequences derived from the basic assumption of the wave hypothesis of light. Mathematical analysis showed that if the wave hypothesis is correct, then inside the full shadow cast on a bright screen by a dark solid disc placed between the light source and the screen, a bright spot (the Poisson spot) must necessarily be observed under precisely defined conditions, as if someone had pierced the disc of the screen in the middle. Subsequent testing showed that this seemingly paradoxical fact does indeed occur. And yet this discovery – Fresnel diffraction at a circular and opaque screen – objectively proves only the truth of the consequence of the assumption of the wave nature of light, i.e. the applicability of the Huygens – Fresnel method to the calculation of the diffraction of light, but does not prove the truth of the assumption itself – does not prove the wave nature of light. Therefore the discovery of the diffraction scattering of microparticles, a phenomenon which before the elaboration of de Broglie's hypothesis had not been directly observed anywhere, was not known, and whose existence was first deduced theoretically as a consequence of the given hypothesis, only raises the degree of probability of the hypothesis but does not prove its truth. This discovery objectively proves only the truth of the consequence of the assumption of the wave nature of microparticles – the applicability of the de Broglie formula to the calculation of the diffraction of microparticles by the Wulff – Bragg method – but does not prove the truth of the assumption itself – the wave nature of microparticles.
The warning against the hasty transformation of a hypothesis into reliable knowledge is expressed in the science of logic by the law: from the truth of a consequence one cannot conclude the necessary truth of the ground. The objective character of this law is confirmed in our case by the circumstance that the diffraction scattering of microparticles and photons by crystal lattices is due not to their wave nature but to the quantum-mechanical properties of the graviton field of the crystal lattices, with which they interact in accordance with equation (4).
21. I am aware of what agitation the theory of quantum-mechanical systems that I propose may cause in the scientific community. Therefore, as a conciliatory gesture, I wish to recall the golden rule of science formulated by the great B. Pascal: “never to assert any proposition that has not been proved by truths already proved”. This golden rule is able to protect science reliably from two extreme human evils – dialectical and ambitious voluntarism. This reminder is all the more appropriate because the proposed theory not only does not diminish the achievements of quantum physics, but gives them the physical meaning they so lack, thereby turning quantum physics from a marvellous science into a fundamental science of exact natural science. And this opens new prospects not only for the physical but also for the humanistic cognition of reality. References.
1. Detlaf A. A., Yavorsky B. M., Course of Physics: A textbook for technical colleges,
Moscow; Vysshaya Shkola, 1999.
2. Trofimova T. I. Course of Physics, Moscow, Vysshaya Shkola, 1994.
3. Shpolsky E. V. Atomic Physics, 6th ed., vols 1 – 2, Moscow, Nauka, 1974.
4. Planck Max, Selected Works, Moscow, Nauka, 1975.
5. Bohr Niels, Selected Scientific Works, in 2 volumes, Moscow, Nauka, 1970.
6. Enokhovich A. S., Handbook of Physics, Moscow, Prosveshchenie, 1990.
December 2009.
However, de Broglie's assumption that the electron, which is undoubtedly a particle, is also a wave – such an assumption grossly contradicts the unchangeable foundations of exact natural science, and is therefore erroneous. The de Broglie wave should be regarded as no more than a “working hypothesis” or a “hypothesis of plausible causes”. This is the name given to hypotheses put forward in conditions where there are not yet sufficient data for a full explanation of the whole set of phenomena of the field under study, and where one has to be content with an explanation that is knowingly incomplete. A “working hypothesis” does not claim to be an explanation or a reflection of reality. It is a more or less artificial assumption, always accepted only conditionally, whose fate is, sooner or later, to give way to an explanation that will be a true reflection of the objective regularity in all its fullness and complexity.
The electron is objectively a particle, and therefore cannot in principle be a wave. And nevertheless, as follows from the scientific literature, the validity of de Broglie's hypothesis has been proved in numerous experiments.
Leibniz already wittily ridiculed those who thought that before studying logic a person was unable to think. This, in his words, would mean belittling nature excessively and supposing that man is a two-legged creature whom Aristotle turned into a rational being. Hegel was no less right when he said that, in order to think correctly, it is not necessary to know logic, just as it is not necessary to know the physiology of digestion in order to learn to take food.
A person learns to think, first of all, under the influence of nature, of which he is a part and the “crown”. Unlike all other kinds of the animal world, man has no biologically distinct ecological niche: the means of sustaining the life of his organism are too weak and undeveloped for the direct extraction and consumption of the vital forces of the nature around him. What makes man viable is the capacity to know reality, i.e. the capacity to reflect correctly in thought the surrounding world and himself in this world. Not thinking in general, but correct thinking opens to man the possibility of constantly strengthening his natural means of sustaining life, supplementing them with the necessary instrumental means. If man did not reflect reality correctly in his thoughts, he simply could not exist. But in order to think correctly and obtain new knowledge by means of inferences, it is necessary to know how the process of thinking takes place, what its forms and laws are, and how to build cognition so as to explain correctly the reality around us. That is why Leibniz pointed out that thinking without a science of the essence of thinking and its laws would be “like counting on one's fingers”.
One need not know the laws of logic in order to think, but in order to think correctly one should bear in mind that observing the laws of logic in the process of obtaining inferential knowledge is a necessary condition for reaching the truth.
A hypothesis is one of the logical forms of thought that make it possible to obtain inferential knowledge, and therefore, with the aim of obtaining reliable knowledge, the science of logic establishes definite rules for testing it. The testing of a hypothesis consists in comparing the consequences obtained analytically from the study of its basic assumption with the data of observation and experiment. If the comparison shows that all the consequences derived theoretically by analysing the basic assumption exist in reality, i.e. agree with the data of observation and experiment and not one of them contradicts these data, then this will prove only that the hypothesis is probable. It may seem that if all the theoretically derived consequences of a hypothesis correspond to the observed facts of reality, then the hypothesis must thereby be considered proved as a reliable truth. However, this is not so. The point is that one and the same consequence may follow from different grounds. Therefore the agreement of the consequences derived from the basic assumption of a hypothesis with the facts of reality does not yet prove its reliability, since these facts may turn out to be due to another regularity which has remained unknown to the author of the hypothesis.
At the same time, weighty evidence in favour of a hypothesis is the discovery – by a special experiment – of a phenomenon which before the elaboration of the hypothesis had not been directly observed anywhere, was not known, and whose existence was first deduced theoretically – as a consequence of the given hypothesis. The probative force of a theoretical deduction increases still more if it contains numerical relations connecting essential aspects of the discovered phenomenon. One such case, for example, was one of the consequences derived from the basic assumption of the wave hypothesis of light. Mathematical analysis showed that if the wave hypothesis is correct, then inside the full shadow cast on a bright screen by a dark solid disc placed between the light source and the screen, a bright spot (the Poisson spot) must necessarily be observed under precisely defined conditions, as if someone had pierced the disc of the screen in the middle. Subsequent testing showed that this seemingly paradoxical fact does indeed occur. And yet this discovery – Fresnel diffraction at a circular and opaque screen – objectively proves only the truth of the consequence of the assumption of the wave nature of light, i.e. the applicability of the Huygens – Fresnel method to the calculation of the diffraction of light, but does not prove the truth of the assumption itself – does not prove the wave nature of light. Therefore the discovery of the diffraction scattering of microparticles, a phenomenon which before the elaboration of de Broglie's hypothesis had not been directly observed anywhere, was not known, and whose existence was first deduced theoretically as a consequence of the given hypothesis, only raises the degree of probability of the hypothesis but does not prove its truth. This discovery objectively proves only the truth of the consequence of the assumption of the wave nature of microparticles – the applicability of the de Broglie formula to the calculation of the diffraction of microparticles by the Wulff – Bragg method – but does not prove the truth of the assumption itself – the wave nature of microparticles.
The warning against the hasty transformation of a hypothesis into reliable knowledge is expressed in the science of logic by the law: from the truth of a consequence one cannot conclude the necessary truth of the ground. The objective character of this law is confirmed in our case by the circumstance that the diffraction scattering of microparticles and photons by crystal lattices is due not to their wave nature but to the quantum-mechanical properties of the graviton field of the crystal lattices, with which they interact in accordance with equation (4).
21. I am aware of what agitation the theory of quantum-mechanical systems that I propose may cause in the scientific community. Therefore, as a conciliatory gesture, I wish to recall the golden rule of science formulated by the great B. Pascal: “never to assert any proposition that has not been proved by truths already proved”. This golden rule is able to protect science reliably from two extreme human evils – dialectical and ambitious voluntarism. This reminder is all the more appropriate because the proposed theory not only does not diminish the achievements of quantum physics, but gives them the physical meaning they so lack, thereby turning quantum physics from a marvellous science into a fundamental science of exact natural science. And this opens new prospects not only for the physical but also for the humanistic cognition of reality. References.
1. Detlaf A. A., Yavorsky B. M., Course of Physics: A textbook for technical colleges,
Moscow; Vysshaya Shkola, 1999.
2. Trofimova T. I. Course of Physics, Moscow, Vysshaya Shkola, 1994.
3. Shpolsky E. V. Atomic Physics, 6th ed., vols 1 – 2, Moscow, Nauka, 1974.
4. Planck Max, Selected Works, Moscow, Nauka, 1975.
5. Bohr Niels, Selected Scientific Works, in 2 volumes, Moscow, Nauka, 1970.
6. Enokhovich A. S., Handbook of Physics, Moscow, Prosveshchenie, 1990.
December 2009.